Renewal means there was an exciting, dynamic point in any organization to which there is a desire to return. There have been many times of great revival in the US, but the second great awakening had a tremendous impact on the entire country. It is a good idea to look back at that time and understand what happened. Methodist circuit riders were a key to the great awakening in the early nineteenth century.
According to John Wesley the great weakness in the Whitefield led awakening in pre-Revolutionary America was the failure to draw the newly converted people into a close, corporate discipline. In a sermon in 1778 he observed that, "...the people had no Christian connection with each other, nor were they taught to watch over each other's souls.1" Wesleyans in America were determined not to make that same mistake. The Methodist Church in America was to become the largest Protestant denomination through revivalism, the development of societies or class meetings, quarterly meetings with sacramental love feasts, camp meetings and itinerant preachers who traveled throughout the frontier preaching the good news of Jesus Christ and the need for personal salvation.
According to John Wesley the great weakness in the Whitefield led awakening in pre-Revolutionary America was the failure to draw the newly converted people into a close, corporate discipline. In a sermon in 1778 he observed that, "...the people had no Christian connection with each other, nor were they taught to watch over each other's souls.1" Wesleyans in America were determined not to make that same mistake. The Methodist Church in America was to become the largest Protestant denomination through revivalism, the development of societies or class meetings, quarterly meetings with sacramental love feasts, camp meetings and itinerant preachers who traveled throughout the frontier preaching the good news of Jesus Christ and the need for personal salvation.
Methodist class meetings or societies were the focal point of the Wesleyan revival in England and were just as effective on the American frontier. The class became the basic medium within early Methodism for spiritual growth, relationships and personal spiritual accountability. Upon entering a class, one had to admit a desire to be saved from his sins, to avoid evil of all kinds, be kind and merciful and obey all the ordinances of God2. In these meetings were found intimate human fellowship and discovery of intimacy with Almighty God.
Classes, or societies, were formed in a new community by the itinerant preacher who might preach one or two days and then form a class and select a leader. There was a probationary period of six months before one could become a full member.
Perhaps the supreme moment in the communal experience of the Methodists came in the "Love Feasts". Each quarter all of the members in a circuit were brought together for a joint meeting. The love feasts, a part of that meeting were normally closed to all but members and usually preceded or immediately followed the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. Opportunities were given to share Christian experiences, offer scriptural verses, extemporaneous prayer and hymn singing.
Another phenomenon which became popular with the Methodists was the "Camp meeting". These were special occasions when several circuits would come together in a forest setting for several days of exciting fellowship and spiritual revival. People from all over would enjoy hymn sings, baptisms, preaching and fellowship away from the cares of their homes. While this phenomena was not accepted universally within the Methodist church, no less than Francis Asbury regularly encouraged his presiding elders to use camp meetings as a tool for revival and evangelism.3
A major factor in the spread of the gospel on the frontier was the Methodist circuit rider.
Methodist preachers in the early nineteenth century like most of their compatriots in other denominations were a diverse group. Even on the frontier it would be difficult to generalize a description which could represent a true model of the frontier circuit rider. The call to preach may have come in different ways, but often a candidate would be recruited by an elder as a result of leading a class or in many cases soon after the candidate’s conversion. One such candidate was Peter Cartwright who was born again in 1801 at the age of sixteen at a camp meeting under the preaching of Rev. John Page. A year later at the age of seventeen, he was given a "license to exhort" by Rev. Jesse Walker. Walker authorized Cartwright to organize classes and plan a new circuit.4
Once recruited, the candidate had regular steps to follow to become fully qualified. In 1804 Cartwright was admitted “on trial” to the Western Conference, in 1806 he was admitted into full connection and elected a deacon and ordained by Asbury. In 1908 he was ordained an elder by Bishop McKendree. Bishop McKendree selected books for the young preacher to study and appointed a course of reading and study. At every quarterly meeting McKendree took the young Cartwright through an examination.5
Out on the frontier, the preacher was more soul winner than pastor. Conversion, one's own and others,' was the fundamental emphasis of the circuit rider's life. Cartwright describes his own conversion;6
"...it was not one of your tippy, fashionable, silver-slippered kind of conversions, but it was a backwoods conversion. I struggled hard for it, and I know I obtained pardon for my sins."
There is no question that Cartwright was a charismatic preacher. The sudden transformation of the spirit that occurred in his converts was often accompanied by ecstatic manifestations. The first time he preached a young lady fell "as if a rifle ball had hit her"7.
"I have never tried to feel that pasteboard religion that will not allow a man to say ‘amen’ or ‘glory’. A Christian stillborn into the family of heaven is an anomaly. I love that religion that a man can feel and know for himself, that can support us under trials, that can bear anything and everything while God gives us his love in our hearts."
During Cartwright's preaching an animal excitement spread and sinners came under conviction. Conversions always resulted. Conversion was not the end product of cognitive instruction but an awakening to charismatic rebirth usually as a result of highly emotional preaching8. Cartwright's charisma was anchored in an extraordinary faith and a trust in God.
The gospel of Jesus Christ was spread throughout the frontier by many itinerant preachers like Cartwright who spent most of their time on horseback traveling from three to five hundred miles per month, getting paid four dollars, sleeping wherever they found shelter, often preaching in the open ten or more times each week. These men accepted the call of God to preach the Gospel despite hardships, bullies, bandits, hostile Indians, Unitarians, Baptists and Calvinists.
The Methodists were almost universally looked upon by other denominations as a set of fanatics9.
".... they often said Methodist preachers carried with them some kind of stuff to give people the jerks, or spasms or fits, and make them shout halloo and fall down and lay as dead men and women."
Methodist preachers following Wesley viewed the rebirth as an inward, total turning in which the person cooperated with God's grace. Outward actions demonstrated inner conversion. This conversion was independent of baptism or the Lord's Supper. Throughout his career, Cartwright clashed theologically with Baptists and Presbyterians on issues such as baptism and predestination. Some of his most fabled feats include besting Baptists and debating Arminianism versus Calvinism with Presbyterians. At one point Cartwright even pretended to be converted by a Baptist's sermon. Then he refused to be baptized because of his belief that his initial baptism was valid. The Baptist preacher refused to accept him into his church and would not give him communion until he was re-baptized. When they saw this many in the assembly refused to join the Baptist church10.
Infant baptism was an important fact in Methodism which caused several heated debates with the Baptists. Cartwright's favorite argument was that infants had first title to baptism and adults could claim baptism only if they were converted and became as little children11.
“Finally, I propounded this question: ‘Is not that church which has no children in it more like hell than heaven?’ I then added, ‘If all hell was searched, there would not be a single child found in it; but all children are in heaven; therefore, there being no children in the Baptist church, it was more like hell than heaven.’"
Dvorak12 infers that Cartwright's ministry was shaped more by charisma than by customary practice, such as the use of the sacraments. She points out that his autobiography only lists eleven incidents of baptism and each of those described conflicts with Baptists. A more detailed review of Cartwright’s writings reveals more information. There were many unique incidents of baptisms described inFifty Years a Presiding Elder. These include Cartwright’s refusal to baptize a child until its parents changed his name from Jefferson Davis to George Washington, the baptism of an entire family on a moving train and his summation of the year after retiring he baptized 20 adults and fifty children.
A summary of Cartwright's theology is contained in his reply to a letter he received, ostensibly from Hell, commending him for his Arminian beliefs and indicating that everyone in hell wanted to encourage him. The letter had actually been written by some Presbyterian ministers responding to Cartwright's publishing tracts against Calvinism.13 The following is a summary of his Arminian theology.
- Arminianism teaches that Christ died positively for every individual of Adam's race.
- God had an end view in the creation of man; namely His will and pleasure.
- When God of His own free grace gave the promise of the Savior to man He graciously restored him to a liberty and a power to accept or refuse offered salvation.
- When, by an act of faith, a person receives Christ as Prophet, Priest and King, lays hold of Him as mediator, then his faith is imputed to him as righteousness.
- The promises of God are like the threatenings of God in that they are conditional. If the wicked man turn away from the error of his ways, he shall save his soul.
- Those who live by faith or who effectually knew Christ may fall away and perish.
Cartwright then concluded his theological discussion with an attack on Calvinism.
"Calvinism scandalizes the character of God by making Him the author of sin.....It makes preaching the Gospel vain, useless and absurd. ......It makes void all the ordinances of God. ....It tends to destroy several particular branches of holiness....It is highly injurious to mankind.14"An understanding of Cartwright's theology provides an insight into his zealousness to see people come under the saving grace of Jesus Christ. He saw every person as eligible for salvation no matter how spiritually destitute they may be or how evil. He sees his call to be the instrument of God's conviction and offer each one the salvation of Christ. Several incidents in his ministry emphasize this point.
An understanding of Cartwright's theology provides an insight into his zealousness to see people come under the saving grace of Jesus Christ. He saw every person as eligible for salvation no matter how spiritually destitute they may be or how evil. He sees his call to be the instrument of God's conviction and offer each one the salvation of Christ. Several incidents in his ministry emphasize this point.
While preaching in a very poor and thinly settled part of one circuit, he noticed two young ladies who were affected greatly. After the meeting he inquired of the ladies and found they were from a non-Christian family and were not part of the church. He insisted on going to talk and pray with them despite warnings about their mother, who would curse him and throw him out of the house. True to form the woman stuck her fist in Cartwright's face and ordered him out of the house. Determined to pray with the ladies he ordered the mother to behave herself and began to pray with his eyes open.
"This woman ...... has a shipload of devils in her ... she is a hard case ... she is determined to drag her husband down with her.... she refuses to be a Christian or let anyone else be one .... if there is mercy for this poor, mean, sinner, let it be extended to her .... but if her day of grace is gone, if the door of grace is shut against her, kill her and damn her right to the devil where she belongs and don't let her live to torment and drag her husband and children down to hell to suffer damnation forever and ever, Amen.15"
This prayer sounds harsh but certainly is not without precedent in scripture. The result however was the miraculous salvation of the entire family. Salvation of mother, father and children became the means of revival for the whole community. A permanent church was established in this poor place.
Cartwright states, "I have made it a rule never to back down from the devil or his imps, whether he appears in male or female form. But sometimes it requires backwoods' courage to stand our ground." When Cartwright was a presiding elder in the Cumberland River district of Kentucky a new mission was established in a mountainous region. He sent a young preacher in who was promptly beaten up by bullies and sent home. Later Cartwright found a "large and well formed" nineteen-year-old preacher named George Richardson, to send back into that area. His instruction to Richardson was pointed.
"Brother Richardson, I want you to take charge of Cumberland Mission. Those fellows up there have driven brother Chambers off. But it won't do for us to deliver them over to the devil without another effort to save them, and I want you to give them a strong pull. They must be converted somehow; and if you can't convert them with the Gospel, do it with your fist.16"
This sounds like strange talk from a preacher, but understanding Cartwright’s theological framework, almost any tactic may be useful if it leads a sinner to salvation. As a result of this commission, a year later Richardson reported a mission circuit formed and two hundred and sixty one names enrolled as probationers for church membership.
Circuit riders were not encouraged to marry; their ministry was extremely hazardous and kept them on the road continually. When one was married, they would normally "locate" and settle in a church. The most important task for the wife of a circuit rider or traveling preacher was to be an encouragement for her husband. Cartwright's wife the former Frances Gaines is an example of just such a woman17.
"We both had common infirmities and imperfections of fallen human nature to contend with; but by the grace of God we could live happy together and do some good for the world. ...... The Methodist church never furnished me a parsonage. .... With a wife and six children, the first year I received forty dollars.... They were years of great success...."
Cartwright had strong views on itinerancy and indeed was prophetic, "Mark it. If ever the itinerancy goes down .... the glory of Methodism will settle under a cloud and the days of our usefulness will .... be numbered18. And he was only objecting to a change allowing a preacher to stay on the same circuit three years instead of two.
Peter Cartwright's ministry spanned over sixty-five years in which time he became bigger than life. Incidents border on the legendary. However, the only thing unique about him was his longevity. The circuit rider throughout the early 19th century was indeed a heroic figure. Thousands of young men, called by God, faced the trials and hazards of frontier evangelism, many losing their lives in the process. The combination of itinerant evangelists, class meetings, quarterly celebrations, camp meetings and lay ministry provided for a dynamic vital Christianity on the frontier. Numerical as well as spiritual growth within Methodism has never been duplicated.
While church growth experts and renewal leaders in the late 20th century are attempting to find out why the United Methodist Church is declining they might well look to the past. The rediscovery of small groups and alternative forms of worship are being touted as a new phenomena. We might well look back to the days of Cartwright and his contemporaries who were not afraid to be called fanatics nor ashamed to defend their theology as they faced hardship, ridicule and death to bring the Gospel to hurting people19.
"Kneeling in the solemn forest ..... Going with moistened eyes from the thicket, our hearts were often cheered as, when we approached the cabin, or school - house, or the barn, we heard the waiting congregation singing, `Jesus my all to heaven is gone'. Entering, saddle bags in hand, we often felt a new commission, as we drew forth the pocket Bible and preached the unsearchable riches of Christ on puncheon floors .... while the sinner cried as his heart was touched...."
1 Buckey, Emory Stevens, General Editor, The History of American Methodism, Volume 1, Abbingdon Press, Nashville, 1964, p. 307 This reference will be referred to later as The History of American Methodism.
2 ibid. p 309
3 ibid. pp 507-523
4 Cartwright, Peter Fifty Years a Presiding Elder, Jennings and Graham, Cincinnati, 1871
5 ibid. p 214
6 ibid. p216
7 ibid. 219
8 Dvorak, Katherine L. Peter Cartwright and Charisma, Methodist History, Vol. 26, January, 1988
9 Cartwright, Fifty Years, pp 275 - 276
10 Cartwright, Peter, Autobiography, Abbingdon Press, New York, 1956, Originally published in 1856. pp 56 - 60
11 ibid. 155 - 156
12 Dvorak, Peter Cartwright and Charisma, Methodist History, Vol 26, January, 1988, p 120
13 Cartwright, Fifty Years A Presiding Elder, 94 - 193
14 ibid. p 184
15 ibid. 74 - 79
16 ibid. p 83
17 Cartwright, Fifty Years
18 ibid. 128
19 Cartwright, Fifty Years
